With insights drawn from Reiser's work (Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology), my team and I developed this definition: Instructional design and technology is a field of study and practice that identifies learning and performance challenges; it encourages designers to utilize methods such as analyzing data, designing and developing content, and implementing and assessing the effectiveness of the course; and is applied in settings such as educational institutions and workplaces.
Illustration created by ChatGPT.
Brief History
Instructional Design has evolved over the decades, influenced by major events and technological advancements. Below are some key movements in its history, summarized in a table format:
Time Period
Movement
Summary
Early 1900s to WWII
Visual and Audiovisual Instruction
The early 20th century marked the rise of visual aids in education, such as slides, films, and stereographs distributed through school museums (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). During WWII, audiovisual tools like training films and overhead projectors were crucial for rapid skill acquisition in military and industrial training (Saettler, 1990). Despite limited long-term educational impact due to cost and resistance, these innovations laid the groundwork for integrating media into instruction.
1950s–1960s
Programmed Instruction and Behavioral Objectives
This period introduced programmed instruction, led by B.F. Skinner, emphasizing small learning steps and immediate feedback (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018). Behavioral objectives became central, providing measurable and goal-oriented designs to improve instruction (Mager, 1962). These advancements established systematic and repeatable methods in instructional design that remain influential.
1970s
Systems Approach and Instructional Design Models
Instructional design models such as ADDIE emerged, emphasizing task analysis, delivery, and evaluation (Reiser and Dempsey, 2018). The military adopted these models to streamline training, influencing academia and corporate sectors. Graduate programs in instructional design were also established during this period, solidifying the systems approach in education and training (Saettler, 1990).
1980s–1990s
Cognitive Psychology and Constructivism
Cognitive psychology introduced learner-centered approaches, focusing on memory, problem-solving, and meaningful tasks (Reiser and Dempsey, 2018). Constructivist principles emphasized authentic learning experiences, aligning instructional design with real-world applications. Performance improvement methods also gained traction, broadening the field beyond traditional instruction (Dick and Carey, 1985).
2000s–Present
Digital Technologies and Online Learning
The 21st century has seen advancements like online learning, artificial intelligence, and augmented reality reshape education (Reiser and Dempsey, 2018). The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the critical role of instructional design in remote learning. Informal learning and mobile technologies have further diversified instructional strategies, pushing designers to adopt more flexible, learner-centered approaches (Seaman et al., 2018).
References
Reiser, R. A., and Dempsey, J. V. (2018). Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Taylor and Francis.
Saettler, P. (1990). The Evolution of American Educational Technology. Libraries Unlimited.
Mager, R. F. (1962). Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruction. Fearon Publishers.
Seaman, J., Allen, I. E., and Seaman, J. (2018). Grade Increase: Tracking Distance Education in the United States. Babson Survey Research Group.
Dick, W., and Carey, L. (1985). The Systematic Design of Instruction. Scott Foresman.
Learning Theories
Instructional design is guided by several major learning theories, each offering unique insights into how people learn and how teaching can be optimized. Below is a summary of the four key theories based on the textbook:
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
Connectivism
Constructivism
Behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors and their environmental antecedents and consequences. Learning occurs through reinforcement or punishment, where positive outcomes increase the likelihood of repeated behaviors (Skinner, 1938; Reiser et al., 2018). Instructional designs based on behaviorism often emphasize clear objectives, feedback, and practice to reinforce learning outcomes.
Cognitivism emphasizes internal mental processes, such as memory, attention, and problem-solving. Learning involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information through sensory, short-term, and long-term memory systems (Driscoll and Burner, 2022; Reiser et al., 2018). Instructional strategies include directing attention, facilitating connections to prior knowledge, and supporting reflection to enhance learning.
Connectivism views learning as building connections between nodes in a network. It emphasizes diversity of opinions, maintaining connections, and continuously updating knowledge in a dynamic information environment (Siemens, 2005; Reiser et al., 2018). Instructional design in connectivism often integrates collaborative tools and digital technologies to foster connections and shared understanding.
Constructivism posits that learners actively construct knowledge through experiences and interactions. Learning is a process of testing personal understandings against external perspectives in authentic, collaborative environments (Chi et al., 2018; Reiser et al., 2018). Instructional designs leverage real-world tasks, reflection, and scaffolding to support meaningful learning.
Infographic illustrating the Brief History of Instructional Design.
References
Reiser, R. A., Carr-Chellman, A. A., and Dempsey, J. V. (2018). Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Taylor and Francis.
Skinner, B. F. (1938). The Behavior of Organisms. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Driscoll, M. P., and Burner, K. J. (2022). Psychology of Learning for Instruction. Pearson.
Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age. Retrieved from https://www.elearnspace.org
Chi, M. T. H., Adams, J., and Roy, M. (2018). Interactive – Constructive – Active – Passive (ICAP) Framework. Educational Psychologist.
Behaviorism and B.F. Skinner
Illustration created by ChatGPT.
Behaviorism, as championed by B.F. Skinner, centers on observable behaviors and their environmental antecedents and consequences. Skinner posited that learning can be understood and predicted entirely through these observable events. Antecedents serve as cues for behavior, while consequences determine whether a behavior is repeated, thus reinforcing learning. For instance, a teacher’s smile can reinforce a learner’s behavior, encouraging its repetition (Reiser et al., 2021).
As illustrated in the image above, behaviorism focuses on external influences on behavior, with reinforcement playing a key role in shaping and sustaining desired actions. This theory introduced concepts such as behavioral objectives, practice, and feedback into instructional design, laying the foundation for individualized and technology-driven learning systems. Tools like online training programs often incorporate these principles, enabling learners to progress at their own pace.
Furthermore, advancements in behavioral theory, such as John Staddon’s work, highlight how learners' unique reinforcement histories influence their future learning experiences, further refining the application of behaviorism in instructional design (Reiser et al., 2021). The empirically driven nature of behaviorism has had a lasting impact on instructional design, particularly in formative evaluation, which observes and adjusts instructional methods based on measurable changes in learner performance. Skinner’s radical behaviorism continues to influence how we design, implement, and assess instruction to this day (Reiser et al., 2021).
Gagné’s Theory of Instruction
Illustration created by ChatGPT.
Robert Gagné's theory of instruction is a foundational framework in instructional design, emphasizing the systematic connection between what is known about learning and how instruction is designed. Grounded in cognitive information processing theory and practical military training experience, Gagné proposed a comprehensive instructional design approach featuring a taxonomy of learning outcomes and nine events of instruction that facilitate cognitive processes (Reiser et al., 2021).
Gagné identified five categories of learning outcomes—verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, attitudes, and motor skills—each requiring distinct instructional conditions. For example, teaching motor skills like CPR may involve demonstrations and hands-on practice, while fostering attitudes may leverage modeling and benefits-driven narratives. This taxonomy ensures instructional goals are matched with effective methods (Reiser et al., 2021).
Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction
The Nine Events of Instruction provide a sequence of steps to optimize learning by aligning with cognitive processes like attention, encoding, and retrieval. These events are:
Gaining Attention: Capture learners' focus through engaging stimuli.
Informing Learners of Objectives: Clearly communicate the goals of instruction.
Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning: Activate existing knowledge to build connections.
Presenting the Stimulus: Deliver the core content or activity to be learned.
Providing Learning Guidance: Offer cues and strategies to facilitate understanding and retention.
Eliciting Performance: Provide opportunities for learners to practice the new skills or knowledge.
Providing Feedback: Deliver corrective insights to improve performance.
Assessing Performance: Evaluate learning outcomes against instructional objectives.
Enhancing Retention and Transfer: Encourage learners to apply knowledge beyond the immediate context (Reiser et al., 2021).
Gagné’s work is a cornerstone of instructional design, providing a structured approach to creating effective learning experiences. His integration of taxonomy and instructional events continues to shape e-learning, corporate training, and educational practices worldwide (Reiser et al., 2021).
Constructivism in Learning
Illustration created by ChatGPT.
Constructivism is a learning theory emphasizing the active role of learners in constructing their own understanding of the world. Unlike information processing theories, which focus on external stimuli shaping internal knowledge, constructivism posits that learners impose their own organization and meaning onto their experiences. Knowledge is constructed internally and often tested against external feedback from peers and instructors (Reiser et al., 2021).
This theory has significantly influenced instructional strategies, advocating for learning environments that are authentic, collaborative, and reflective. Constructivist approaches encourage learners to engage in real-world tasks, collaborate with others, and self-regulate their learning goals. The concept of cognitive load, stemming from information processing limitations, is also addressed in constructivist strategies by using tools like worked examples and scaffolded learning tasks (Reiser et al., 2021).
Advanced models like the 4C/ID framework integrate constructivist principles with sequenced learning tasks, promoting deep learning and knowledge transfer. Similarly, the ICAP framework emphasizes that learning is most effective when learners interact collaboratively or actively generate new knowledge rather than passively receiving information (Reiser et al., 2021). These approaches underscore the critical role of instructional design in creating meaningful and supportive learning experiences.
Key Features of Constructivist Learning
Encourages authentic activities reflective of real-world tasks.
Supports collaboration and diverse perspectives.
Promotes self-regulated learning and goal setting.
Incorporates reflection on the learning process to enhance understanding.
My Educational Philosophy
Below is my educational philosophy paper. Feel free to read through it directly on this page:
